By: Julia Carolina Caravalho
Graciously Given Permission To Publish from Youth For Democracy Globalization is characterized by the expansion of international flows and the contraction of time and space. As a result, the boundaries of states are weakened and the unevenness of development between countries and regions are accentuated. This consequently exacerbates the diaspora of people from one place to another, due to different reasons, such as: fleeing war, famine, religious persecution or in search of job opportunities and a better life. Currently, there are more than 280 million migrants in the world, the highest number in human history. [1] Manifestations of xenophobia occur in the process of accommodating peoples of different cultures, religions and language. The International Organization for Migration (IMO) describes them as “attitudes, prejudices and behaviour that reject, exclude and often vilify persons, based on the perception that they are outsiders or foreigners to the community, society or national identity”. [2] Often, immigrants and their children are not accepted as true citizens, despite citizenship or place of birth. This hostility towards foreigners comes from a myriad of factors, such as economic and cultural factors. This essay seeks to shed light on the causes of xenophobia. Migration has been making headlines across the globe, notably in the United States and in Europe, as indicated by recent political events such as: Brexit, Donald Trump's election, and the rise of populism in Europe. That is not to suggest that xenophobia is an exclusive Western phenomenon; since it is increasingly prominent in developing countries as well. However, given that the amount of empirical information addressing the latter is significantly inferior, the essay concentrates on developed countries. One of the very first concerns prompted by the arrival of immigrants is the economic well-being of the host-country**.** In recent decades, economic growth has slumped. Over the last twenty years, the French economy grew on average 1.5% compared with the annual growth of 5% in the postwar era. [3] In the US, in the first two decades following the end of World War II, the economy grew about 4% per year, contrasting with the only 2% growth over the last two decades. [4] At the same time, the rising gap between the rich and the poor sharpened. [5] These factors combined led to the stagnation of living standards, and consequently, resentment and frustration. In this setting, migrants are usually seen as an economic burden, abusers of welfare and job-stealers. While it is true that migrants can pressure schools, healthcare systems and housing markets, the economic impact of immigration depends on several factors such as workers' and migrants’ skills, the labor market, the host-country’s economic cycle, etc. At the heart of the fear of unemployment is the lump of labor fallacy i.e. the flawed assumption that there is a fixed number of jobs in an economy. In some cases, migrants have skills that complement those of the natives, in others, migration increases the pool of workers in certain sectors, especially in low skilled occupations, increasing competition and therefore reducing wages in the short run. Nevertheless, it can create new jobs, since migrants expand consumption for goods and services, driving wages up. In developed countries, they can also boost the working-age population and take low skilled jobs, unwanted by the native population. The Centre for Economic Performance (CEP) argued that EU immigration did not have significantly negative effects on average employment, wages, or inequality, yet the economical concerns were a driving force for the result of the Brexit referendum.[6] In 2016, Donald Trump outperformed Hillary Clinton in counties where wages were lower and jobs were at risk due to automation and globalization. [7] In research for his book, Yascha Mounk could evidence this anxiety in his interviews- “”Those politicians care more about foreigners than they do about us,” “this country is going down the drain”. [8] On top of that, when the host countries have a history of ethnic homogeneity and have an ethnic conception of the nation rather than a civic, which is the case in Europe, they are fertile ground for xenophobic rhetoric. This is especially true when we consider that the social changes brought about globalization have led to a greater attachment to identity. Furthermore, with immigration rates going up, natives are losing their sense of self, they fear a future in which the majority group will eventually become the minority. In Europe, much is said about the Islamisation of the West. In fact, what is seen throughout the world is an overestimation of the number of migrants. Americans believe that 17 percent of the population is Muslim, while it is actually 1 percent. The French think it is 31 percent, the right figure is 8 percent. [9] One might wonder about the United States, since it was composed by immigrants from the outset and founded upon the idea that all humans are equal, and still, in the last years, the public rhetoric is marked by xenophobia. First, the group of immigrants that held power were all white and Christians, and nowadays, migrants come from all over the world. Added to this is the fact that the nation’s immigrant population is the highest in history. More than 44.9 million immigrants were living in the United States in 2019, which corresponds to 13.7 percent of the overall population. [10] The US Census Bureau predicts that non-hispanic whites who, in 2005, accounted for 67% of the population will become less than half of the US population by 2055, namely 47% .[11] Those numbers help to explain the resurgence of nationalism and populists right-wing parties in recent years. In “Clamour of Nationalism”, Sivamohan Valluvan defines it as “the set of framings by which primary culpability for significant socio-political problems, whether real or imagined, is attributed to various ‘alien’ ethno-racial communities.”[12] That is, there is a clear distinction between citizens and immigrants, insiders and outsiders, belonging and non-belonging, us and them. A survey showed 58 percent of Europeans from 10 different countries (namely Greece, Belgium, France, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Austria, Luxemburg, Denmark, Italy and Finland) believed migration was linked with rising levels of crime, even though EU research proves this to be wrong. [13] [14] This view is promoted by the media and politicians, especially in the post truth era where everyone is free to spread lies, fake news and to promote hate speech. They do this by using stereotypes, dubious statistics, flawed assumptions, decontextualization and generalization. For instance, research showed that water metaphors such as flood, waves, pour, and stream were largely used in headlines, comparing immigrants to unwanted natural disasters. [15] To illustrate the increase in discrimination and violence directed against migrants, it is relevant to cite the perception of Islam by Europeans. Another survey showed Europeans believe Islam is incompatible with western values. [16] They share the perception that Islam is backwards, patriarchal, violent, non-pregressive, a threat to democracy, freedom and justice and western civilization as a whole. Atif Rashid, however, argues that Islam not only is compatible, but also endorses the values cited above, which shows how the western perception of Muslims is stained with stereotypes, especially due to terrorist attacks around the world. [17] It is interesting to note that populist politicians seem to perform particularly well in regions and countries with a low foreign-born population. That happens because regular contact with minority groups can ease discrimination. For example, Residents of former West Germany, who were three times more likely to come into contact with migrants at work or in their neighborhood, displayed much more favorable feelings towards them. [18] That is why policies such as excluding refugees and asylum-seekers from territories can actually heighten xenophobia. In conclusion, xenophobia is distinctly predominant in times of social and economic distress, when the native population longs for an often idealized past. They conclude that the arrival of migrants must have led to the end of prosperity and economic growth, and choose to blame them instead of admitting that the world has become increasingly complex. This view is efficiently promoted by opportunist politicians, who capture social anxieties to their advantages. They reinforce negative stereotypes by sharing fake news on social media, and consequently strengthen xenophobia. The rise of populism over the last years raised concerns about the protection of minority rights, jeopardizing the idea that liberal democracy is consolidated in the Western developed countries. Hence, the international community must acknowledge the relevance of xenophobia in political instability, particularly on account of the exponential increase in the number of migrants in consequence of climate change. By 2050, droughts, floods, sea-level rise and several other natural disasters will cause over one billion climate refugees to face displacement, as estimated by the International Organization for Migration.[19] It is important to remark that environmental and political degradation are connected, they reinforce each other. Thereby, in the years to come, xenophobia will compromise social cohesion in times when we will most need it. Footnotes: [1] McAuliffe, M. and Khadria, B., 2020. WORLD MIGRATION REPORT 2020. [online] Geneva: International Organization for Migration. Available at: https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/wmr_2020.pdf [Accessed 2 January 2022].[2]Iom.int. n.d. Key Migration Terms, Migration Glossary | IOM, UN Migration. [online] Available at: https://www.iom.int/key-migration-terms [Accessed 2 January 2022]. [3] AMADEO, K., 2021. An Annual Review of the U.S. Economy Since 1929. [online] The Balance. Available at: https://www.thebalance.com/us-gdp-by-year-3305543 [Accessed 2 January 2022]. [4] Mounk, Y., 2019. The people vs. democracy. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, p.139. [5] Fadulu, L., 2022. Study Shows Income Gap Between Rich and Poor Keeps Growing, With Deadly Effects (Published 2019). [online] Nytimes.com. Available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/10/us/politics/gao-income-gap-rich-poor.html [Accessed 3 January 2022]. [6] Wadsworth, J., Dhingra, S., Ottaviano, G. and Van Reenen, J., n.d. Brexit and the Impact of Immigration on the UK. [online] Available at: https://cep.lse.ac.uk/pubs/download/brexit05.pdf [Accessed 3 January 2022]. [7] Kolko, J., 2022. Trump Was Stronger Where The Economy Is Weaker. [online] FiveThirtyEight. Available at: https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/trump-was-stronger-where-the-economy-is-weaker/ [Accessed 3 January 2022]. [8] Mounk, Y., 2019. The people vs. democracy. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, p.146. [9] Ipsos.com. 2020. [online] Available at: https://www.ipsos.com/sites/default/files/news_and_polls/2014-11/6657-ppt.pdf [Accessed 3 January 2022]. [10] Jeanne Batalova, a., 2022. Frequently Requested Statistics on Immigrants and Immigration in the United States. [online] migrationpolicy.org. Available at: https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/frequently-requested-statistics-immigrants-and-immigration-united-states-2020 [Accessed 3 January 2022]. [11] S. PASSEL, J. and COHN, D., 2008. U.S. Population Projections: 2005-2050. [online] Pew Research Center's Hispanic Trends Project. Available at: https://www.pewresearch.org/hispanic/2008/02/11/us-population-projections-2005-2050/ [Accessed 3 January 2022]. [12] Valluvan, S., 2019. The clamour of nationalism. Manchester: Manchester University Press, p.14. [13]Crush, J. and Ramachandran, S., 2009. Xenophobia, International Migration and Human Development. United Nations Development Programme Human Development Reports Research Paper. [14] Cordis.europa.eu. n.d. CORDIS | European Commission. [online] Available at: https://cordis.europa.eu/article/id/20635-eu-research-disproves-link-between-immigration-and-increased-crime [Accessed 3 January 2022]. [15] Crush, J. and Ramachandran, S., 2009. Xenophobia, International Migration and Human Development. United Nations Development Programme Human Development Reports Research Paper. [16] Tidey, A., 2019. Half of French, Germans think Islam clashes with their values: Survey. [online] euronews. Available at: https://www.euronews.com/2019/02/04/nearly-half-of-french-and-germans-think-islam-clashes-with-their-values-survey [Accessed 2 January 2022]. [17] Rashid, A., 2016. The truth about whether Islamic values are compatible with Western values. [online] The Independent. Available at: https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/the-truth-about-whether-islamic-values-are-compatible-with-western-values-a7141381.html [Accessed 3 January 2022]. [18] Crush, J. and Ramachandran, S., 2009. Xenophobia, International Migration and Human Development. United Nations Development Programme Human Development Reports Research Paper. [19] Refugees, U., 2022. Climate change and disaster displacement. [online] UNHCR. Available at: https://www.unhcr.org/climate-change-and-disasters.html [Accessed 3 January 2022].
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